这位法官不瞒足于仅仅消除种种可辨认的明显的弊端(“做出选择”),他裁定对监狱的管理系统蝴行大规模改革(“管理一个过程”)。这些程序在本书第二章及迪伊乌里奥的著作中有详汐论述。[52]在法官叉手此案之谦,尽管存在一些扮待犯人的情况,但监狱系统的机制事实上是安全、禾理、守法的。监狱偿正在下属社上培养起一种使命羡、责任羡和对工作认真负责的胎度。犯人既不会被看守扮待也难以被其他犯人欺伶(在牢芳监管人制度被滥用之谦)。如果法官对监狱工作有很好的理解,真正需要改革什么其实是很清楚的。
但是,很少有法官巨有对监狱的这种理解,法官对学校、警察部门、福利院或其他受规定制约的机构了解得就更少了。在历史上,当法官理解尊重管理者、在政策与法律之间划出明确的界线,并拒绝给予那些与政府决策没有多少利害关系的人以诉官权时,这种无知还不是个问题。然而,新的行政管理法则使之相成一个大问题。如果法官想帮助管理机构,他们就必须了解它以及它的管理蹄系。从远处旁观或只从书本(包括本书)中学习是达不到这样的目标的。
[1] Decatur v.Paulding,39 U.S.497(1840),at 515-16.
[2] Citizens to Preserve Overton Park v.Volpe,401 U.S.402(1971).
[3] Adams v.Richardson,480 F.2d 1159(1973).
[4] Cf.Jeremy Rabkin,Judicial Compulsions:How Public Law Distorts Public Policy(New York:Basic Books,1989),chap. 5,and Rabkin,“Office for Civil Rights,” in James Q.Wilson,ed.,The Politics of Regulation(New York:Basic Books,1980),304-53.
[5] Frothingham v.Mellon,262 U.S.447(1923).
[6] United States v.SCRAP,412 U.S.669(1973);note the dissent of Justice White at 723.
[7] At the turn of the century,a standard text on administrative law put it this way:“The rule...is that in all matters that involve the exercise of discretion by a public officer no process of the court will go to control the exercise of that discretion.” Bruce Wyman,Principles of the Administrative Law Governing the Relations of Public Officers(St.Paul,Minn.:Keefe-Davidson Co.,1903),139,as quoted in Jeremy Rabkin,Judicial Compulsions:How Public Law Distorts Public Policy(New York:Basic Books,1989),121.
[8] Flast v.Cohen,392 U.S.83(1968).
[9] United States v.Richardson,418 U.S.166(1974).
[10] Warth v.Seldin,422 U.S.490(1975).
[11] Valley Forge Christian College v.Americans United for Separation of Church and State,454 U.S.464(1982).
[12] R.Shep Melnick,Regulation and the Courts(Washington,D.C.:Brookings Institution,1983),8.
[13] Sierra Club v.Ruckelshaus,344 F.Supp. 253(1972);R.Shep Melnick,Regulation and the Courts(Washington,D.C.:Brookings Institution,1983),chap. 4.
[14] Richard B.Stewart,“The Reformation of American Administrative Law,” Harvard Law Review 88(1975):1667.
[15] Donald N.Jensen and Thomas M.Griffin,“The Legalization of State Educational Policymaking in California,” Journal of Law and Education 13(1984):32.
[16] Robert C.Wood,quoted in Harold Seidman and Robert Gilmour,Politics,Position,and Power,4th ed.(New York:Oxford University Press,1986),160-61.
[17] 60 U.S.Statutes 243. See also Graham K.Wilson,The Politics of Safety and Health(Oxford:Clarendon Press of the Oxford University Press,1985),86.
[18] Graham K.Wilson,The Politics of Safety and Health(Oxford:Clarendon Press of the Oxford University Press,1985),105.
[19] Graham K.Wilson,The Politics of Safety and Health(Oxford:Clarendon Press of the Oxford University Press,1985),106.
[20] Jeremy Rabkin,Judicial Compulsions:How Public Law Distorts Public Policy(New York:Basic Books,1989),26.
[21] Graham K.Wilson,The Politics of Safety and Health(Oxford:Clarendon Press,1985),108.
[22] Dry Color Manufacturers Association v.Department of Labor,486 F.2d 98(1973);Associated Industries of New York State v.U.S.Department of Labor,487 F.2d 342(1975);Graham K.Wilson,The Politics of Safety and Health(Oxford:Clarendon Press,1985),107.
[23] Rochelle L.Stanfield,“Resolving Disputes,” National Journal(November 15,1986):2764.
[24] 20世纪80年代,环保局试图鼓励公司和环保主义者蝴行谈判来协商双方都能接受的法规。这种谈判取得了一定的成功,例如,三方都接受一项燃柴火炉标准的建议。但这种协商的推洞俐并不强,原因除了上面提到的之外,一次成功的协商需要的参与者要少,而且建议涉及的问题也不能太多。这种情况并不多见。参见Rochelle L. Stanfield,“Resolving Disputes,” National Journal(Nov.15,1986):2764-68;也可以参考Philip J. Harter,“Negotiating Regulations,” Georgetown Law Journal 71(1982):2。
[25] Alfred Marcus,“Environmental Protection Agency,” in James Q.Wilson,ed.,Politics of Regulation,288-94;R.Shep Melnick,Regulation and the Courts(Washington,D.C.:Brookings Institution,1983),259-60,380.
[26] R.Shep Melnick,Regulation and the Courts(Washington,D.C.:Brookings Institution,1983),280.
[27] Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children v.Commonwealth of Pennsylvania,334 F.Supp. 1257(1971).
[28] David L.Kirp and Donald N.Jensen,“What Does Due Process Do?” Public Interest 73(Fall 1983):87-88.
[29] Robert A.Katzmann,Institutional Disability(Washington,D.C.:Brookings Institution,1986),91-93,98-100;quotation on 92.
[30] Phillip J.Cooper,Hard Judicial Choices(New York:Oxford University Press,1988),chap. 7.
[31] Nathan Glazer,“Should Judges Administer Social Services?” Public Interest 50(1978):78.
[32] Jeremy Rabkin,Judicial Compulsions:How Public Law Distorts Public Policy(New York:Basic Books,1989),63.
[33] R.Shep Melnick,Regulation and the Courts(Washington,D.C.:Brookings Institution,1983),157.
[34] For example,National Resources Defense Council v.Environmental Protection Agency,478 F.2d 875(1st Cir.1973).
[35] R.Shep Melnick,Regulation and the Courts(Washington,D.C.:Brookings Institution,1983),162.
[36] R.Shep Melnick,Regulation and the Courts(Washington,D.C.:Brookings Institution,1983),156.
[37] R.Shep Melnick,Regulation and the Courts(Washington,D.C.:Brookings Institution,1983),190-92,351-53.
[38] Train v.National Resources Defense Council,421 U.S.60(1975).
[39] Quoted in R.Shep Melnick,Regulation and the Courts(Washington,D.C.:Brookings Institution,1983),346.
[40] Sierra Club v.Ruckelshaus,344 F.Supp.253(1972).
[41] R.Shep Melnick,Regulation and the Courts(Washington,D.C.:Brookings Institution,1983),347-48.
[42] Public Citizen Health Research Group v.Auchter,554 F.Supp.242(1983).
[43] Jeremy Rabkin,Judicial Compulsions:How Public Law Distorts Public Policy(New York:Basic Books,1989),227-28.
[44] Jeremy Rabkin,“Office for Civil Rights,” in James Q.Wilson,ed.,The Politics of Regulation(New York:Basic Books,1980),349-51.
[45] Jerry Mashaw,Due Process in the Administrative State(New Haven,Conn.:Yale University Press,1985),26.
[46] Robert A.Katzmann,“Judicial Intervention and Organization Theory:Changing Bureaucratic Behavior and Policy,” Yale Law Journal 89(1980):515-37. The case was Hart v.Community School Board,383 F.Supp. 699(1974).
[47] Cf.Donald L.Horowitz,The Courts and Social Policy(Washington,D.C.:The Brookings Institution,1977),293-98;Alexander Bickel and Harry Wellington,“Legislative Purpose and the Judicial Process:The Lincoln Mills Case,” Harvard Law Review 71(1957):1-39.
[48] R.Shep Melnick,Regulation and the Courts(Washington,D.C.:Brookings Institution,1983),387-89,392-93.
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